What is green hydrogen?

Green hydrogen

Green hydrogen is hydrogen produced through the electrolysis of water using renewable energy sources, such as solar, wind, or hydroelectric power. It serves as an energy storage medium, an energy vector, and a fuel for transportation, making it a pivotal element for future energy markets and sustainable environmental solutions. (1)

Unlike conventional hydrogen production methods that often rely on fossil fuels, green hydrogen is considered environmentally friendly as it generates minimal carbon emissions.

Hydrogen (H2) is an invisible, odourless gas and is the lightest and most abundant chemical element on earth. It is rarely present in a pure state, but is a component of water and hydrocarbons. Hydrogen is not only a source of energy but also an “energy carrier” that can be stored on a large scale over the long term. (2) Hydrogen’s properties make it suitable for different applications, depending on the production process:

– In a natural gas network mixed with methane to generate heat;

– In a vehicle as an energy source for an electric motor (the electricity is produced by a fuel cell integrated into the vehicle) or thermal (direct combustion of hydrogen); and

– In the electricity grid, to produce electricity.

Hydrogen can also be used in the chemical industry, where it is exploited for its chemical properties:

– Hydrogen is used as a raw material in the refining of hydrocarbons;

Hydrogen is used as a raw material in hydrocarbon refining, fertiliser production and certain chemical applications; and

– Hydrogen mixed with CO2 produces synthetic methane, a molecule identical to natural gas. Derived synthetic fuels can also be produced in this way: methanol, diesel, paraffin, etc.

Today, the global hydrogen market is essentially an industrial market. Hydrogen is used in processes in the oil and chemical industries. The three largest markets are the desulphurisation of petroleum fuels, ammonia synthesis mainly for fertilisers, and the chemical industry. (3)

For Woodrow W. Clark II and Jeremy Rifkin, a green hydrogen economy is in high demand today by the large public to save the planet from potential destruction: (4)

“Clean environment and renewable energy lead to a healthier atmosphere. Global climate is a concern of all citizens. Our children are depending on us to do something today. Not do anything and leave the problems to the research laboratory or future generations. Aggressive improvement in energy efficiency, along with well thought out and executed transitional strategies, are essential to a clean environment.’’

Power-to-hydrogen

Hydrogen can be produced in a low-carbon and economical way thanks to electrolysis technology, which consists of separating a molecule of water into Hydrogen (H2) and Oxygen (O2) using electricity, provided that the electricity used to produce it is itself produced from renewable sources.

The production of hydrogen by electrolysis of water is ultimately a key solution for integration of renewable energies into the energy system. Hydrogen produced in this way will accelerate the decarbonisation of a number of sectors in industry, mobility and gas networks. (5)

It should be noted that electrolysers also produce oxygen, at a rate of 8Kg of Oxygen (O2) for 1Kg of Hydrogen (H2). This means that Morocco will also have a substantial quantity of oxygen for various industrial applications, both for the local market and for export. (6)

The benefits of green hydrogen 

Green hydrogen is highly beneficial as it is produced using renewable energy sources, making it completely sustainable. It does not emit greenhouse gases during production or combustion, unlike fossil fuels. Additionally, it can provide clean power for industries that are difficult to transition away from fossil fuels, thereby contributing significantly to reducing pollution and reliance on non-renewable energy. (7)

Green hydrogen offers numerous benefits as a clean energy source, particularly its ability to decarbonize sectors that lack alternative green solutions. It plays a crucial role in transitioning towards a sustainable energy future, contributing to both energy security and reduced greenhouse gas emissions. Its clean-burning nature and versatility make it a promising candidate for achieving net-zero emissions by 2050. Additionally, it can serve as a secondary energy source, integrating well within future energy systems. (8)

As such the benefits are as follows:

-Environmental Impact: Green hydrogen production emits no greenhouse gases, contributing to reduced carbon footprints and helping combat climate change.

-Energy Storage: It provides a solution for storing excess energy generated from renewable sources, helping to balance supply and demand.

-Decarbonization: Green hydrogen can replace fossil fuels in various sectors, such as transportation, industry, and heating, facilitating the reduction of carbon emissions.

-Energy Security: Using domestic renewable resources for hydrogen production can enhance energy independence and security for countries.

-Job Creation: The development of green hydrogen technology and infrastructures can create jobs in manufacturing, maintenance, and research.

-Versatility: Green hydrogen can be utilized in multiple applications, including fuel cells for vehicles, industrial processes, and as a feedstock for producing other chemicals.

-Grid Stability: It can help stabilize energy grids by acting as a flexible energy carrier, integrating with systems reliant on variable renewable energy sources.

Overall, green hydrogen is seen as a key component in the transition to a sustainable, low-carbon economy.

The key: low-carbon, competitive electricity

The attractiveness of hydrogen does, however, come up against some important environmental realities. The large amount of water consumed by water electrolysis is a considerable challenge, especially for a country that has to contend with major droughts. Finally, hydrogen production requires the production of large quantities of renewable electricity, which could conflict with the objectives of decarbonising Morocco’s electricity mix, which is still heavily dependent on coal. (9)

There are 4 processes for producing hydrogen: natural gas reforming (the most common), coal and biomass gasification and, finally, water electrolysis. This last process separates hydrogen and oxygen from water using electricity, and currently accounts for less than 1% of global hydrogen production. Yet it is the only potential source of green hydrogen (if the electricity used is decarbonised), and therefore represents a hope for the decarbonisation of many sectors. (10)

Total hydrogen production was estimated at nearly 100 million tonnes in 2020, and could be multiplied by 5 in carbon-neutral scenarios. In its Net Zero Emissions (NZE) scenario, the International Energy Agency (IEA) projects a growing role for low-carbon hydrogen in sectors where emissions are difficult to reduce and where other mitigation measures may not be available or would be difficult to implement. These include heavy industry (manufacture of nitrogen fertilisers after conversion into ammonia, cement manufacture, replacement of coal in the steel industry), passenger transport, shipping (in the form of methanol or ammonia for container ships), and aviation (in the form of sustainable aviation fuels). (11)

Many reference bodies agree that low-carbon (blue or green) hydrogen will play a growing role in our future low-carbon economies. However, it should be noted that in all cases, the reductions in CO2 emissions made possible by hydrogen remain relatively small compared with other climate change mitigation measures such as sobriety or the massive deployment of renewable energies. (12)

One of the main cost factors for green hydrogen is the renewable electricity needed to power the electrolysers. The production costs of green hydrogen are currently 4 to 10 times higher than those of grey hydrogen (USD 4-12/kg compared with USD 1-2/kg), even in the most favourable production sites. The expected reductions in the production costs of renewable energies and electrolysers will make green hydrogen more competitive in the long term. Thanks to its abundant sunshine and strong exposure to wind, Morocco has significant renewable potential, giving it a central role in the future of global hydrogen.

The expertise acquired by Moroccans since the launch of the 2009 strategy, as well as the technological developments, which have undergone fundamental changes over the past 4 years, are creating a new situation. Indeed, the costs of renewable energies are now competitive. The latest wind energy tenders in Morocco in 2015 were awarded at a cost of 0.30 MAD/kWh, while in the photovoltaic sector, the last tender in the Middle East region was awarded at a tariff equivalent to 0.13 MAD/kWh under conditions similar to those in Morocco. These are figures that were completely unthinkable before, and they represent a profound paradigm shift, and call for an acceleration of the implementation of the King of Morocco’s Vision with a fresh approach to implementation. Energy can thus become Morocco’s new green emergence.

Morocco’s renewable energy potential, which is now more competitive, is remarkable. It virtually represents a production capacity equivalent to that of Nigeria or Venezuela. Exploiting this deposit would make it possible to energy dependence, improve the purchasing power of Moroccan citizens, the competitiveness of industries and public accounts, but also to consolidate the country’s international positioning. (13)

In the near future, Morocco could play a key role in supplying Europe with green energy via electricity or hydrogen, thereby reshaping the geopolitical balance in the region. The new European commitments to carbon neutrality by 2050, formalised in the Green New Deal, open up this opportunity. A German study recently ranked Morocco among the top 5 countries in the world for developing such an energy partnership.

In order to achieve these benefits, forward-looking modelling shows the need to embark on a strategy that looks at energy transformation as a whole, beyond electricity and beyond traditional uses. This requires:

– Devote future electricity capacity almost exclusively to renewable sources and storage (STEP, batteries and technologies under development);

– Maximise decentralised electricity generation at household, industrial, community, farm and grid level;

– Maximise decentralised electricity production at household, industry, community, farm, cooperative, etc. level; 

– Gradually transforming mobility, which currently accounts for 40% of total energy consumption, to maximise the use of renewable energy.

– Consumption to maximise the use of sustainable public transport and electric cars;

– Implement a coordinated energy efficiency policy;

– Invest in desalination using renewable energies, the cost of which is also on a downward trend to address, in part, the problem of water stress; and

– Join the hydrogen revolution (Power-to-X), in which Morocco’s comparative advantages are considerable.

The importance of green energy

The world has made the fight against climate change one of its top priorities. Rarely have so many international resources been allocated to a common goal. Recent studies have established that “green hydrogen” – hydrogen obtained from renewable energies – now has a major role to play in decarbonising the global economy. Countries around the world are now seeking to develop their own global strategy for green hydrogen, and the countries of the South are no exception.

Driven by a very strong demand for change in public policy with regard to the climate, the countries of the North are now extremely focused on green hydrogen issues. However, they are coming up against one main constraint: cost. With very high production costs, the countries of the North are turning to countries – such as Morocco – with the capacity to produce green hydrogen at a much lower price.

A forerunner in Africa with one of the most ambitious energy strategies, Morocco now needs to position itself at once in a rapidly growing and structuring international green hydrogen market. With its many assets, Morocco has an essential role to play in the global energy transition.

Emergence of this type of industry in Morocco already has two major advantages. Firstly, it will help to decarbonise part of the Moroccan economy, mainly the 68.8 million tonnes of CO2 it emits every year. (14) Morocco would thus be doing its bit to combat global warming. Secondly, exporting green hydrogen internationally: by succeeding in producing at a sufficiently low cost and by structuring an efficient supply chain, Morocco could export the surplus green hydrogen it produces to other countries.

Morocco has set itself ambitious climate targets for 2030 in its updated Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC), (15) which was revised upwards in 2021. As such, Morocco wishes to continue to lead the way in terms of climate ambition under the Paris Agreement, following the example of its NDC, by making a full contribution, commensurate with its current and projected socio-economic capacities, to the fight against climate change, and projected capacities, to the response to the climate emergency highlighted by the IPCC (16) reports, and in the global objective of climate neutrality.

Macroeconomic Profile

Morocco has been characterized over the last two decades by political and macroeconomic stability, and low inflation levels (+/- 2%). A dynamic mainly supported by; (1) structuring institutional reforms, (2) the consolidation of productive fabrics (agriculture, industry, etc.) through the massification of investments, (17) (3) as well as the development of the country’s competitiveness on a regional and global scale.

However, the difficult context of the COVID-19 pandemic coupled with a drought in 2020 hampered the continued growth rate, despite the Kingdom’s strong responsiveness to these crises. The national economy thus suffered a contraction of 7.2% at the beginning of this decade (compared to +2.9% in 2019). The year 2021 marked a stirring of economic recovery and posted a growth rate of 7.9%, an effort whose results would be mixed in the economic conjecture of the year 2022.

The latest projections from Bank-Al-Maghrib (BAM) predict growth of 1% in 2022, and a recovery of the Moroccan economy in 2023, with a projected growth of 4%, under the assumption of a successful agricultural year (return to average cereal production). (18) 

It should be noted that the World Bank predicts continued growth in 2024, with a projected rate of 3.6%. For the period 2025-2030, Morocco’s new development model (NMD), (19) which constitutes a key strategic reflection in terms of the Kingdom’s development, (20) establishes an average growth hypothesis of around 6%, which represents an ambitious scenario that will depend directly on the recovery of the global economic situation. (21)

Furthermore, the unemployment rate reached 11.9% in 2020 (compared to 9.2% in 2019), with a more significant worsening for the youth category (15 to 24 years old), whose unemployment rate reached 31.2% (compared to 24.9% in 2019). (22) The unemployment rate in Morocco rose to 13% in the fourth quarter of 2023, an increase from 11.8% during the same period the previous year. Youth unemployment is particularly high, averaging 21.84% from 1999 to 2024 and peaking at 38.20% in the third quarter of 2023. For the most recent data, the unemployment rate decreased to 9.11% by July 2024.

In this context of crisis, the national economy is experiencing an uncertain year marked by the deterioration of the twin deficits and the level of treasury debt (which could approach the threshold of 80% of GDP in 2022 compared to 60% in 2019), with a 2021-2022 agricultural season impacted by drought (23) and the sharp rise in the prices of raw materials, particularly energy. This inflation, the impact of which remains unpredictable, was exacerbated by the outbreak of the Russia/Ukraine war.

Furthermore, Morocco’s foreign trade was marked by a reduction in the trade deficit resulting from a drop in imports of 70 billion MAD in 2020 and a relatively less significant impact on exports (-22 billion MAD). Trade transactions thus fell by 11.7% to 685.1 billion MAD in 2020, compared to 775.4 billion MAD in 2019.

Since 2010, the trade balance situation has improved significantly. The coverage rate of imports by exports increased by 42.8% in 2009 to reach around 63% in 2021. This situation is the result of the growth rate of imports (1.3%), 3.3 points lower than the growth rate of exports (4.6%) during the period 2015-2020 (PAI deployment period). Progress has been noted in recent years in Morocco’s share of the global trade market, which rose to 0.16% in 2019 (compared to 0.12% in 2010). In addition, the momentum generated at the national production system level, thanks to the sectoral plans deployed, has proven opportune to strengthen Morocco’s integration into global value chains. (24) Morocco recorded a trade deficit of 22349 MAD Million in June of 2024. Balance of Trade in Morocco averaged -12247.29 MAD Million from 1998 until 2024, reaching an all-time high of -1254.60 MAD Million in January of 1999 and a record low of -34567.00 MAD Million in July of 2022. (25)

For its part, the Moroccan financial sector has undergone a continuous process of modernization over the last two decades in order to increase its efficiency, support and sustain the country’s economic and social development, and improve its international attractiveness. (26) Banks granted a total of approximately MAD 988 billion in credits at the end of 2021, compared to MAD 621 billion in 2010. In relation to GDP, bank credits represented 80% in 2021. (27)

Green hydrogen in Morocco

Morocco has developed a favorable energy model for the production of green hydrogen, leveraging its excellent conditions for renewable energy generation. The government has also created a project known as “Offre Maroc/ GREEN HYDROGEN MOROCCAN OFFER” (28) focused on this initiative, which is open to national and international investors. This commitment indicates Morocco’s strategic move towards expanding its renewable energy capabilities, particularly in green hydrogen production.

In the words of MASEN, the Moroccan institution in charge of the above-mentioned Offer. The Offer in question is stated in the following words: (29)

“The Morocco Offer applies to integrated projects upstream from the generation of electricity from renewable energies and electrolysis to the downstream transformation of green hydrogen into ammonia, methanol, synthetic fuel as well as the associated logistics.”

The Kingdom of Morocco has launched a regional initiative aimed at creating an economic and industrial sector based around green molecules, particularly hydrogen, ammonia and methanol, in order to consolidate its energy transition by helping to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and supporting the decarbonisation of partner countries. This drive is based in particular on exploiting exceptional potential in renewable energy sources, as well as the expertise acquired by the Kingdom over the last 10 years. (30)

The production of green hydrogen in Morocco will promote economic growth, contribute to the decarbonisation of its industry and the security of its energy and non-energy input supplies. It will also bring added value to the production of electricity in particular its transformation into products with higher energy density and energy-dense products with high demand potential for the world’s major economies, which also represents a real opportunity for Morocco to export green energy. (31)

The introduction of the green hydrogen industry and its derivatives, “Power-to-X (PtX)”, (32) is a major step forward that will enable the Kingdom to diversify its energy mix through the integration of renewable energy sources in sectors that are difficult to decarbonise.

The establishment of a national industry based on hydrogen would first make it possible to replace ammonia imports with local production of this important raw material in the fertilizer sector. This transition will help to de-risk this critical activity for the country and guarantee long-term supply.

Concerning Morocco’s interest in green hydrogen, El Youssoufi Attou, S. and Nadir, B. write: (33)

“Hydrogen, a chemical element frequently used in industry, functions as a raw material, fuel and energy carrier. At present, most of its production is based on raw materials derived from fossil sources. However, in the context of the fight against climate change and the reduction of greenhouse gases, the challenge is to promote decarbonised or green hydrogen production methods. With this in mind, a promising option based on the combination of renewable energies as an energy source and hydrogen as an energy carrier is emerging. The emergence of a new sector such as green hydrogen requires appropriate incentives and legal frameworks to encourage its development. Indeed, the integration of green hydrogen into the Moroccan energy landscape requires a strong and proactive government commitment. This article looks at the public policy measures taken to promote green hydrogen in Morocco.”

Morocco’s potential

Morocco, through its ambitious energy strategy, has been able to rise over the last ten years to the rank of regional champion of the energy sector and has contributed to its competitiveness. The fall in the price of the renewable kilowatt-hour, together with the abundance of Moroccan sites combining high wind speeds, there is a real opportunity to produce hydrogen and derivatives without CO2.

Morocco’s proximity to the European continent makes it a key strategic partner. Several European countries, notably Germany, have expressed their willingness to consolidate their energy partnership with Morocco. This is a competitive advantage, especially as it has already established energy interconnection infrastructures.

Indeed, Morocco could draw on its gas and port infrastructures, which are well connected to the Atlantic and the Mediterranean to set up a logistics platform for exporting green hydrogen and its products to Europe.

The World Energy Council’s “Power-to-X Roadmap” (34) study identified a number of areas where the region could make a significant contribution. Indeed, for “Power-to-X Roadmap” study, (35) Morocco is one of the 6 countries with the greatest potential for producing and exporting hydrogen and its products to Europe.

Morocco has developed an energy model that is favourable to the production of green hydrogen, based essentially on the increased use of renewable energies. Over the last 10 years a revolution in terms of the deployment of renewable energies, with ambitious and proactive targets for the capacity to be installed to exceed the 52% target by 2030 target announced at COP21.

On the far-reaching benefits of establishing a global Power-to-X industry in Morocco, Energy Economics writes: (36)

“Establishing a global power-to-x industry would render significant benefits in Morocco. The country has a carbon intensive energy matrix and its supply is heavily dependent on imports. The last decade, oil made up more than half of primary energy sources consumed, most of which were procured from international markets. Enhancing the use of its renewable energy potentials represents a pertinent option for decarbonising its economy and for strengthening its security of supply. The benefit of developing a PtX industry in Morocco transcends its borders. Synthetic fuels are at the centre of worldwide decarbonisation strategies by enabling close to immediate substitution of pollutant fuels, the continued use of existing energy infrastructure and providing a real clean alternative for hard-to-decarbonise sectors.”

As for the role that Morocco could ultimately play at the international level, Info Mineo writes: (37)

“The Research Institute for Solar Energy and Renewable Energies (IRESEN) has announced recently that Morocco will become a carbon-neutral energy exporter by 2030 through the launch of construction works for a dedicated platform for green hydrogen and ammonia starting January 2020.

This infrastructure, with an investment amounting MAD 150 million, results from a partnership between IRESEN, via Green Energy Park, and both OCP and the Mohammed VI Polytechnic University on the Moroccan side, as well as Fraunhofer institutes on the German side. The platform will be dedicated to the R&D demonstration of Power to X technologies, with a diversified research program on hydrogen applications in the production of high added value green molecules such as ammonia and methanol.

It is worth pointing out that this technology is complementary to renewable energies and will help to reduce carbon emissions while creating a strong opportunity for economic and social development through exports due to the current lack of profitability of conventional electricity exports given the sharp drop in renewable energy costs compared to electricity transmission. 

In addition, beyond the existing infrastructures, in particular, the Maghreb-Europe Gas Pipeline and the port infrastructure, capable of playing the role of a liquid fuel export platform, economic relationship with the European Union are constantly strengthening. In Europe, Germany which is the Kingdom’s privileged partner in renewable energy sector, intends to replace its fossil fuel (coal) and nuclear energy needs starting from 2022 until 2038 by importing clean energy, in accordance with its environmental commitments. According to Badr IKKEN the General Director of IRESEN, this situation represents an important opportunity for countries like Morocco, capable of producing clean fuels, particularly green molecules such as hydrogen and green derivatives.”

The development of green hydrogen in Morocco

The development of green hydrogen will be implemented gradually, with a view to ensure that the full potential is exploited, both for the national economy and for export.

2020 – 2030

In the short term, the development of the green hydrogen industry in Morocco will be based on two industry pillars:

– The first is local use as a raw material in industry, in particular for the production of green ammonia in the fertiliser industry,

– The second is the export of green hydrogen products to countries that have committed to ambitious decarbonisation targets.

During this period, the costs of green hydrogen products will remain higher than those of conventional products. The development of the hydrogen industry would be based on various pilot and development projects supported by the public authorities and subsidised funding from national and international financial institutions.

2030 – 2040

In the medium term, other specific favourable conditions and, in particular, the reduction the cost of green hydrogen products and the introduction of environmental regulations will enable the first economically viable projects to be developed for ammonia and green hydrogen, both nationally and internationally.

The same applies to exports of synthetic liquid fuels such as paraffin, diesel and petrol, provided that encouraging environmental regulations are adopted in regions such as Europe that import green hydrogen and which presents opportunities for Morocco to develop this sector gradually.

The local use of green hydrogen products in the electricity sector, as an energy storage, and in transport as a fuel, could support the expansion of the hydrogen industry in Morocco. However, pilot projects for these sectors could be launched in the short to medium term to test the technological applications and readapt them to the Moroccan context, with a view to optimising their deployment in the long term.

In the energy sector, green hydrogen can be used as a vector for the storage of energy in order to reduce energy consumption, network congestion and improve the flexibility of the national electricity system.

2040 – 2050

For this period and beyond, the business cases for ammonia, hydrogen and green synthetic fuels for export, and the development of green hydrogen technologies and industry would accelerate globally including in Morocco. This expansion will further evolve through the local use of green hydrogen in industry, for heat production, in the residential sector and in urban mobility and air transport.

Nevertheless, the demand for green hydrogen or synthetic methane in these sectors, particularly in the case of the residential sector, relates to potentially small volumes of demand combined with high investment requirements for the development of major distribution infrastructures.

In the transport sector, long-term development opportunities are focused on aviation. Some demand could emerge in the transport sector, probably associated with green hydrogen used for freight, mining and public transport in pilot projects.

Projections and prospects for a green hydrogen economy

The market potential for green hydrogen and its derivatives up to 2050 in Morocco is calculated using a methodology based on estimates of future demand and specific evaluations:

– Assessment of domestic demand for green hydrogen and its derivatives as a raw material for industry;

– Evaluation of the export potential of green hydrogen and its derivatives; and

– Assessment of the domestic demand for green hydrogen and its derivatives for transport.

Two scenarios are taken into account, a reference scenario (minimum estimate) and an optimistic scenario (maximum estimate), to formulate an indication of the potential demand for green hydrogen .and its derivatives

Assessment of the export potential of green hydrogen and its derivatives

The World Energy Council study estimated that the global market for green hydrogen and its derivatives at 20,000 TWh in 2050. We assume that in 2030, this global market would represent 600 TWh.

The study “Opportunités Économiques du Power-to-X au Maroc” (Economic Opportunities for Power-to-X in Morocco) has shown that the Kingdom of Morocco has a very large market for green hydrogen and that it could capture up to 4% of this global demand in 2030.

By 2050, Morocco’s share of the world market is expected to fall to around 1%, while other countries accelerate the pace of development of this industry. Finally, it is assumed that 75% of exports will correspond to hydrogen, exported in the form of ammonia, and 25% to synthetic liquid fuels.

Assessment of domestic demand for green hydrogen and its derivatives as a raw material for industry

This application will mainly concern the fertiliser industry and possibly the refining sector. The share of the Moroccan market for ammonia is very significant, given the needs of the OCP Group in particular (≈ 2Mt in 2019). The development of the ammonia sector in Morocco will depend on reducing costs compared to the conventional sector in order to guarantee its competitiveness.

On the issue of Morocco’s sustainable energy transition and the role of financing costs, Thomas Schinko, Sönke Bohm, Nadejda Komendantova, El Mostafa Jamea and Marina Blohm argue: (38)

“Morocco is facing major challenges in terms of its future energy supply and demand. Specifically, the country is confronted with rising electricity demand, which in turn will lead to higher fossil fuel import dependency and carbon emissions. Recognizing these challenges, Morocco has set ambitious targets for the deployment of renewable energy sources for electricity generation (RES-E). The realization of these targets will lead to a fundamental transition of the Moroccan electricity sector and requires substantial public and private investment. However, different risks constitute barriers for private RES-E investments and lead to high financing costs, which may eventually discourage capital-intensive RES-E projects.”

In line with the most optimistic forecasts, previous studies of ammonia exports from Morocco, it is assumed that this demand would account for a larger share than domestic (x2 to x9 plus by 2050).

For the refining sector, hydrogen demand has been calculated based on the refineries that could be built in Morocco. This should start at Mt and reach 10 Mt in the long term. It is assumed that green hydrogen covers 25% of total demand for this fuel, by 2030 and could reach 40% by 2050.

Morocco intends to become one of the world’s largest producers of green hydrogen

Morocco intends to become one of the world’s largest producers of green hydrogen, the fuel made from water and renewable energy, a major energy transformation involving a colossal investment of $60 billion. This fuel of the future, extracted from water by electrolysis using renewable energy, is at the heart of the country’s strategy to position itself as a world leader in this highly promising sector. (39)

The government, in synergy with national and international investors, has already expressed its interest in more than 400 green hydrogen projects. One million hectares of land have been allocated for these ambitious initiatives, which will cover the entire value chain: from hydrogen production to transport, storage and end use.

The roadmap drawn up by Morocco, in collaboration with the German Fraunhofer Institute, envisages the production of 160 terawatt-hours of green hydrogen by 2050. This amount of energy represents an enormous potential, equivalent to seven times the heat of the sun’s core, and underlines the importance of stability and heat for the success of fusion reactors.

Considered the Holy Grail of energy, green hydrogen is a clean, sustainable and versatile source of energy. Morocco plans to use this resource not only to meet domestic needs but also to become a key supplier to Europe, benefiting from financial support from the European Union to the tune of €624 million.

Morocco enjoys ideal natural conditions for the production of green hydrogen, with an abundance of sun and wind. With a wealth of experience in renewable energies, including solar and wind farms, the country is well placed to make a success of this energy transition.

At a meeting with the CGEM on 2 April, 2024 Leila Benali, Minister for Energy Transition and Sustainable Development, stressed the need to triple annual investment to achieve the objectives of Morocco’s energy strategy. In her view, to achieve the ambitions set for 2030, it is imperative to invest 1 billion dollars a year in electricity generation and renewable energies.

The Minister also highlighted the under-investment in the electricity network, an area that requires a significant increase in investment. The Office National de l’Électricité et de l’Eau Potable (ONEE) has been asked to review its equipment plan, in particular the share of investment capital in transmission and distribution networks, which should represent at least 25% of its total investment plan.

This action plan reflects Morocco’s commitment to embracing the energy future and playing a leading role in the transition to a greener, more sustainable economy.

Green hydrogen has the potential to revolutionise Morocco’s energy status

At a time when the world is regularly experiencing energy crises, which have major repercussions on the socio-economic fabric of countries, Morocco intends to use green hydrogen as a lever of sovereignty to promote its emergence.

Green hydrogen has the potential to revolutionise Morocco’s energy status in just a few years’ time. A clean energy source with promising prospects for Morocco, (40) which dreams of becoming a regional and international leader, reshuffling the geopolitical energy cards. At a working meeting on 22 November 2022, devoted to the development of renewable energies and the new prospects in this field, King Mohammed VI gave instructions to draw up as soon as possible an operational and attractive “Morocco Offer” (41) covering the entire value chain of the green hydrogen industry. The meeting was part of the Sovereign’s regular monitoring of the strategic objectives that the Kingdom has set itself in terms of large-scale development of renewable energies, particularly the goal of increasing the share of these energies to more than 52% of the national electricity mix by 2030.

This is clearly an issue of energy sovereignty, which will ultimately help to reduce supply costs, loosen the stranglehold of dependence on major energy-producing countries and position the Kingdom as a key player in the low-carbon economy in the decades to come, creating a comparative advantage for Morocco. It is also an opportunity to attract more domestic and foreign investment in the sector.

Morocco is well qualified to become a key player in the development of green hydrogen, given its geographical location, energy interconnections and exceptional renewable resources. Green hydrogen can also replace fossil fuels as a fuel or energy source. To put it simply, to produce green hydrogen, engineers generally use an electrolyser. In this device, an electric current is passed through water to separate the hydrogen molecules from the oxygen molecules in the water. To qualify as ‘green’, ‘low-carbon’ or ‘renewable’, the electricity used must come from renewable sources, or in some cases from non-renewable low-carbon sources such as nuclear power.

Endowed with significant renewable energy resources, Morocco adopted a national energy strategy in 2009 to achieve a successful transition to a low-carbon energy system that harmonises economic development with social and environmental objectives. (42) Morocco has taken a number of steps to develop this energy sector, including the creation of the National Green Hydrogen Commission, bringing together public and private players, the launch of a study to draw up a green hydrogen roadmap, and the development of an integrated programme for the production of green ammonia.

The Moroccan Agency for Sustainable Energy (MASEN) has chosen the Guelmim-Oued Noun region to develop Morocco’s first green hydrogen production project, “Power to Hydrogen (PtX)”. Four sites in the province of Tan-Tan have been pre-qualified to host the components of this strategic project. The project involves developing a hybrid power plant combining solar and wind power to supply a green hydrogen production plant with an electrolysis capacity of 100 MW, most likely connected to a seawater desalination plant.

According to a study carried out in December 2022 by the European Investment Bank (EIB), the International Solar Alliance (ISA) and the African Union (AU), Africa has the means to become a power in the global green hydrogen market, citing Morocco as one of the major centres of this continental energy transition strategy.

Morocco has everything it takes to become a champion of green hydrogen

Hydrogen has been widely used since the middle of the 20^th century in a number of industrial sectors, but there is now renewed interest in it as a means of decarbonising the economy. Demand for this “green gold” is expected to increase fivefold between now and 2050, fuelled by environmental concerns and the climate crisis.

Morocco is an ideal candidate to become a leader in the production of green hydrogen, taking advantage of both its vast solar and wind energy resources and its strategic location at the crossroads of Africa and Europe. The Moroccan government recently put in place an ambitious framework with the Morocco Offer published in March 2024, which aims to support the development of the hydrogen industry in the country.   

Morocco has everything it takes to become a champion of green hydrogen, thanks to its abundant renewable resources, available land and stable legal framework. The almost unique feature of Morocco is the abundance of sites combining exceptional resources for both solar and wind power, ensuring a perfect hybrid for the operation of the electrolyser and the production of ultra-competitive green hydrogen on a global scale. In addition, Morocco is a major consumer of hydrogen and its by-products (the Office Chérifien des Phosphates -OCP- consumes large volumes of ammonia and nitrogen fertilisers made from hydrogen), and could therefore address its domestic consumption with green hydrogen produced on its territory. Finally, its proximity to Europe, which has set very ambitious targets for the development of the hydrogen and associated industries (for example, see the recent legal obligations to incorporate sustainable aviation fuels), makes it a candidate for export, which is of major strategic interest for the Kingdom, which can go from being an importer of fossil fuels (coal, oil and gas) to an exporter of green molecules. This prospect is all the more relevant given that a quarter of the world’s hydrogen demand could be traded internationally by 2050.

Morocco has announced the availability of 1 million hectares of land for the development of green hydrogen projects, including solar power plants, wind farms, electrolyser batteries, processing plants (ammonia, methanol, etc) and associated infrastructure. This considerable figure represents more than 1% of the country’s surface area of 71 million hectares. The Morocco Offer has been eagerly awaited since it was announced in November 2022, and was designed to clarify a number of key elements for the successful development of green hydrogen projects: allocation of land, responsibility for developing the necessary infrastructure, government incentives, and government requirements in terms of financial and social benefits.

On this last point, it is important to note that the development of a Moroccan low-carbon hydrogen market can represent significant development opportunities, with positive externalities on the economy and employment, at different stages of the production chain. The positive externalities on the economy, training and employment, and more broadly on the development of Morocco, depend directly on the proportion of these activities that would ultimately be located on Moroccan territory.

Like the rest of the international sector, Morocco has seen little concrete progress to date, apart from the strategic initiative of OCP, which has begun construction of a pilot project to produce 1.4k tonnes per year of green ammonia at its Jorf Lasfar plant, and is at an advanced stage on its giga-project at Tarfaya: 1 GW of photovoltaic solar power and 2.3 GW of wind power, as well as a 60 Mm3 desalination plant feeding a 1.85 GW electrolyser and an ammonia production plant with a production target of 1 million tonnes a year by 2027 and 3 million tonnes a year by 2032. Other large-scale projects have been announced by a number of players, particularly in Europe. 

TotalEnergies, for example, is reportedly planning to invest $10.69 billion (100 billion MAD) in a green hydrogen and ammonia production project in Timelzoune (Guelmim-Oued Noun). The hybrid project is expected to generate more than 10 GW by combining solar and wind power over a total area of approximately 180,000 ha. It is interesting to note that the mega-projects announced in Morocco are much larger than the biggest European projects. These projects would have limited social acceptability in Europe, notably due to their high environmental impact; negative externalities that would eventually be relocated by northern countries to producer countries such as Morocco.

Which technology?

Water electrolysis, in particular proton exchange membrane (PEM) electrolysis and alkaline electrolysis, is a widely used method of producing hydrogen from renewable energy. Renewable energy is used to power the electrolysis process, which separates water into hydrogen and oxygen. (43) Other technologies such as biomass gasification, which converts biomass into a mixture of gases containing hydrogen, and solar thermolysis, which uses solar energy to break down water into hydrogen and oxygen, are also under development.

The question posed concerns the identification of the most appropriate renewable energy technology for producing green hydrogen in Morocco. (44) There is no single answer to this question, as it depends on various factors such as the availability of resources, the intra-day and seasonal correlation of production with consumption, cost, the spatial and temporal complementarity of the technology in question with other renewable technologies in place, the impact of climate change on production, as well as environmental sustainability and technological maturity. The renewable energy technology best suited to producing green hydrogen may also vary according to the level of renewable energy penetration in a given energy system. (45)

A thorough analysis of these factors is needed to determine which renewable technology would be most appropriate to meet the growing demand for green hydrogen in Morocco while maximising the use of the country’s renewable resources and reducing dependence on fossil fuel generation, thereby reducing the costs of integrating renewable energy and the emissions associated with the balancing services required for conventional generation. 

Available scientific research work carried proposes different scenarios for the large-scale integration of onshore wind with photovoltaic (PV) and concentrated solar power (CSP) without or with different battery or thermal storage capacities. This work assesses different renewable penetration assumptions, the impact of different storage configurations, the effect of investment, operation and maintenance costs on this integration, and analyses how these energy sources can complement each other spatially and temporally in the current and future climate characterised by global warming. The work also identifies the geographical areas suitable for each energy source. Such an analysis could help to make an informed decision in the context of green hydrogen production in Morocco. (46)

On the assessment of green hydrogen production in Morocco, using hybrid renewable sources, Ilham Ourya, Nouhaila Nabil, Souad Abderafi, Noureddine Boutammachte, and Samir Rachidi argue: (47)

“Green Hydrogen is considered a promising vector of energy to accompany the energy transition and to contribute to achieving climate change ambitions. The intermittency aspect of renewable energy is not allowing the adaptation to the increasing demand for energy. For instance, to achieve the energy sector decarbonization, it was necessary to increase the share of renewable energy in power generation in 2015 to more than 60% in 2030 and 85% in 2050. In 2021, annual renewable capacity additions increased by 6% to approximately 295 GW. This green molecule appears to be one of the most suitable energy carriers for long-term storage to overcome this problem and increase the renewable energy integration rate. In addition, hydrogen is applicable in different sectors such as transport and chemical industries. Green Hydrogen could be used as a feedstock in the chemical industry (ammonia, refinery, methanol) to replace grey hydrogen. It is also expected to replace natural gas for heat and power generation in gas injection pipelines. In the power sector, Hydrogen could be used directly in fuel cells to generate energy or fed into a gas turbine to boost power system flexibility. Another promising usage of Hydrogen includes transportation applications, using fuel cells in cars, heavy trucks, and buses to decarbonize the transport sector.’’

Indeed, given Morocco’s favourable geographical conditions, solar (PV and CSP) and wind technologies are generally considered to be the most promising. Morocco enjoys abundant sunshine throughout the year and excellent wind potential, particularly in coastal and mountainous regions. The electricity generated by these resources can be used to power electrolysers and produce green hydrogen.

It is important to note that the combination of these two technologies, solar and wind without storage, could be beneficial in delivering more consistent and reliable green hydrogen production, particularly at low levels of renewable penetration, as solar and wind production profiles can complement each other.

Adding battery storage to a PV system or thermal storage to CSP can help mitigate the intermittency of low solar electricity generation. Excess electricity produced during sunny periods can be stored in batteries or phase change materials and used later to power electrolysers and produce green hydrogen when there is less sun.

Morocco in the green hydrogen league

During 2022, Morocco continued to build on its momentum in the development of green hydrogen, commonly known as Power-to-X, attracting major investors to the point where observers consider it to be a new Eldorado for the sector. Indeed, the Kingdom is currently one of the best positioned countries in the green energy revolution, a technology for which it could offer some of the lowest production costs in the world.

Moreover, Morocco, which has significant potential for developing this new sector of the energy transition, was at the forefront of deploying large-scale solar and wind power capacity in 2022, and its ambitions to achieve more than half of its energy mix in renewable energies by the end of the decade are even more impressive.

Endowed with an ambitious, pragmatic and forward-looking vision, Morocco is a model to follow in terms of energy transition thanks to its political and social stability, the Kingdom is undergoing major transformations in several sectors, and is betting more than ever on green hydrogen.

In this context, Morocco has launched the first Green Hydrogen Cluster in Africa, “Cluster Green H2”, made up of public and private, national and international players, with a view to working on all the technological developments in this highly promising economic and industrial sector, with the ambition of becoming a key player in the export of green hydrogen to Europe at very competitive costs.

An OCP-Fortescue (49) joint venture was announced on Monday 8 April 2024. The two parties are joining forces in Morocco for a world-leading green energy, green hydrogen and green ammonia project. Focus on the Moroccan phosphate giant’s new partner. The 50:50 partnership aims to supply green hydrogen, green ammonia and green fertilisers to Morocco, Europe and international markets, OCP Group and Fortescue say, noting that it also includes the potential development of manufacturing facilities and an R&D Hub to advance Morocco’s fast-growing renewable energy industry. These proposed projects will also benefit from the expertise of INNOVX, a multi-sector business platform dedicated to developing innovative and sustainable businesses, and contributing to the creation of emerging ecosystems with a strong local impact. (50) The Australian green energy giant Fortescue has, also, signed a strategic partnership to export green energy produced in Morocco to the old continent and international markets. It has concluded an agreement with Belgian maritime construction group Jan De Nul to develop submarine cables.

This year also saw the announcement of the development of a hydrogen storage project launched by HDF Energy and Somas, which will enable this gas to be stored in the cavities of the Mohammedia salt mine, as well as the conclusion of a contract between TotalEnergies and the Spanish denim manufacturer Evlox, which intends to strengthen its position in the industrial and commercial sector to support companies in their energy transition in Morocco.

Total Eren, a subsidiary of TotalEnergies, has also committed 10.69 billion dollars, in this case 100 billion MAD, to a green hydrogen and ammonia production project in Guelmim-Oued Noun. In other words, a project that will enable the country to decarbonise certain major sectors of its economy, including mining and maritime transport, and create a Moroccan green energy industry that will generate thousands of direct and indirect jobs that cannot be relocated and are competitive, as well as supplying Europe with clean energy.

Ranked by the World Energy Council Germany as one of the five countries with the greatest potential for the production and export of green molecules (ammonia, methanol, etc.), Morocco could capture up to 4% of the global hydrogen market, or nearly 3 billion dollars, which could boost the growth of this burgeoning industry.

Conclusion: Green energy, what future?

Over the last few years, Morocco has become a regional and continental pioneer in the field of renewable energies, and hopes to play, in the future, an international leadership role in the green hydrogen economy. The country has the best conditions for the production of green hydrogen and is open to national and international investors. (51)

Morocco is developing a strong foundation for green hydrogen production, benefiting from its excellent natural conditions. The Moroccan government has allocated one million hectares of land for green hydrogen projects and is actively seeking both national and international investors to participate in these initiatives.

To the question, what future to green energy in Morocco, Rim Berahab writes: (52)

“While Morocco has made strides in reforming its renewable energy laws, there remain significant areas for improvement within its broader green industrial policy framework. One of the main challenges is the lack of clear, long-term policy signals and targets that are essential for guiding private sector investment. Furthermore, inconsistencies and regulatory gaps, coupled with insufficient coordination between national, regional, and local authorities, present additional challenges. The distribution of responsibilities across multiple entities—including the Ministry of Energy Transition and Sustainable Development, ONEE, MASEN, and the National Authority for Electricity Regulation (ANRE)—has resulted in a fragmented approach. This fragmentation leads to overlapping roles, conflicting priorities, and a lack of cohesive coordination among stakeholders, delaying the effective implementation of policies (Berahab et al, 2021). For example, the slow enactment of existing laws and the absence of necessary secondary legislation have hindered the effective liberalization of the electricity market.”

Green hydrogen in Morocco is considered crucial for energy production, particularly for producing ammonia, which is a key component in nitrogen-based agricultural fertilizers. The Moroccan government has recently revealed plans to develop a green hydrogen sector, emphasizing its importance in national policy and economic strategy.

The Kingdom has just taken a new step by publishing, in a circular, a first “Morocco offer” (53) for the development of green hydrogen capacities on its territory. In concrete terms, this document defines the roles and missions of the various players in the green hydrogen sector and sets out the criteria that investors must meet if their hydrogen projects are to be taken into account.

Morocco’s offer is aimed at integrated green hydrogen projects – from the production of renewable energy to the conversion and production of green hydrogen – as well as large-scale industrial projects with a minimum surface area of 10,000 hectares.

With its strong commitment to green hydrogen, Morocco is positioning itself as a strategic hub, ready to meet the environmental and economic challenges of the 21^st century. In the global context of the fight against climate change, Morocco has identified green hydrogen as a key vector for decarbonising industrial sectors with high carbon emissions.

This resource, produced from renewable energies, offers a clean and sustainable alternative to meet growing energy needs. At the end of July, 2023 King Mohammed VI (54) reaffirmed the Kingdom’s ambitions in the Speech from the Throne, calling on the government to “rapidly and qualitatively implement” the “Morocco Offer” for green hydrogen. The Sovereign stressed the importance of “making the most of our country’s assets in this area and responding as effectively as possible to the projects put forward by global investors in this promising sector”.

On September 2023, the government announced its intention to launch a green hydrogen project as early as 2024, against a backdrop of growing global demand for clean energy. Morocco is seeking to increase the share of renewable energies in electricity production from 60% by 2040 to 70% by 2050. By 2050, revenues from clean hydrogen are expected to exceed 280 billion dollars.

According to Adil Gaoui, Chairman of the Moroccan Association for Hydrogen and Sustainable Development (AMHYD): (55) 

“Morocco has everything it takes to become a world pioneer in the H2 industry. Indeed, it took a valuable option by subscribing to the photovoltaic industry several years ago. The solar power stations in Ouarzazate and elsewhere, alongside the wind farms, give the country a major advantage in having a green renewable resource to produce hydrogen gas at the foot of these stations and thus solve the major problem of storing the surplus energy produced and thrown away in the absence of storage solutions.”

All European neighbours now see the UK as a potential supplier of green H2. The European Union wants to duplicate what Japan is already doing with Australia by producing Australian green H2 that can be exported to Japan. The ORNX project, with its launch of the study phase for a green hydrogen production platform in Boujdour, stands out as one of Morocco’s flagship initiatives in this field. A combined capacity of 1.8 GW of wind and solar energy is expected to produce more than 100,000 tonnes of hydrogen and 600,000 tonnes of green ammonia. However, the road to green hydrogen production is not without its challenges. (56)

The intermittency inherent in renewable energies calls for ingenious solutions. Electrolysis technology is being considered, but the final choice has yet to be made. In addition, the European Union plans to extend the H2Med project to Morocco by 2040. This extension of the Mediterranean hydrogen corridor opens up significant diplomatic and economic prospects. (57)

Morocco could become a major supplier of green hydrogen to Europe, helping to build a more environmentally-friendly global economy. The construction of infrastructure, such as gas pipelines, is part of Morocco’s strategy to secure its role in the European Hydrogen Backbone network. Partnerships with key players, such as Spain, and companies like Cepsa, underline the collaborative dimension of this energy transition. Green hydrogen projects in Morocco are also designed to transform industries with high carbon emissions. Cement and steel, essential to economic development, could benefit from this transition by reducing their environmental impact. In addition, Morocco’s geostrategic position, with its first-rate port facilities, puts it in pole position to become a global hub for green hydrogen.

For the Net-Zero Circle the Moroccan initiative in the green hydrogen field is a bold move forward towards a sustainable energy future: (58)

“The development of the green hydrogen sector in Morocco has significant environmental and economic implications. Environmentally, it contributes to global efforts to combat climate change by reducing carbon emissions. Economically, it promises to create new industries, jobs, and revenue streams, driving sustainable growth and energy independence for the country.

Morocco’s venture into the green hydrogen sector represents a bold step towards a sustainable energy future. By harnessing its renewable energy resources and strategic geographic position, Morocco is setting a global precedent in green hydrogen production. This initiative not only aligns with the country’s energy strategy but also resonates with the global imperative for clean and sustainable energy solutions. As Morocco continues to innovate and invest in green hydrogen, it not only moves towards its own energy independence but also contributes significantly to the global energy transition, marking a new chapter in the story of sustainable energy.”

The importance of green hydrogen for Morocco lies in its potential to leverage the country’s abundant sunlight and wind resources to create a sustainable energy source. Green hydrogen production can help Morocco address water scarcity by utilizing desalination plants, diversify its energy mix, and stimulate economic growth by establishing a new industrial sector. Additionally, it positions Morocco as a significant player in the global renewable energy market.

Morocco is focusing on green hydrogen as a critical energy source, especially for producing ammonia, which is vital for nitrogen-based agricultural fertilizers. The Moroccan government has unveiled plans to develop the green hydrogen sector, emphasizing its significance in national energy strategy and agricultural sustainability.

You can follow Professor Mohamed Chtatou on X: @Ayurinu

Endnotes:

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4. Ibid
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14.  Ministère de la Transition Energétique et du Développement Durable – Département du Développement Durable. (2021). Stratégie Bas Carbone à Long Terme – Maroc 2050. Retrieved from https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/resource/MAR_LTS_Dec2021.pdf  The document titled “Stratégie Bas Carbone à Long Terme – Maroc 2050,” published by the Ministry of Energy Transition and Sustainable Development in Morocco, outlines a strategic plan aimed at achieving a low carbon development goal by 2050. It includes a co-design process for its climate change framework and emphasizes developing long-term sectoral action plans for decarbonization.
15.  Morocco’s Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) outlines its commitment to reducing greenhouse gas emissions during the period from 2020 to 2030. On June 22, 2021, Morocco submitted its revised Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) to the UNFCCC Secretariat, raising its NDC ambition to a 45.5% reduction in GHG emissions by 2030 compared to the business-as-usual scenario and setting a conditional GHG reduction target of 27.2%. This report also includes information about Morocco’s legal and governance framework related to climate action. 
16.  The IPCC stands for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (intergovernmental body of the United Nations). It is the leading scientific authority on climate change, providing governments with assessments of the scientific knowledge on the subject by reviewing relevant scientific literature.
17.  Investment rate exceeding 30% of GDP over the decade 2009-2019, one of the highest in the MENA Region (MEF).
18.  Bank Al-Maghrib. (2022). Rapport sur la politique monétaire – 2022. Retrieved from https://www.bkam.ma/content/download/775501/8669545/RPM_Q4%202022.pdf 
19.  Morocco’s New Development Model (NMD) is the result of a participatory approach, where various driving forces within the country contributed through different channels to shape its framework. This model aims to address emerging challenges, including economic growth and immigration issues, particularly in light of climate change and other socio-economic factors. The New Development Model adopts the Constitution as its normative framework, striving to make its principles drivers of development and its values ​​methods of action. Development is understood as a global and multidimensional process: it is seen as a virtuous dynamic of wealth creation and human development.
20.  World Bank Group. (2024). Morocco Economic Monitor – Summer 2024 Morocco’s Economy Proves Resilient but Private Sector Faces Challenges. Retrieved from https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/morocco/publication/morocco-economic-monitor-summer-2024-morocco-s-economy-proves-resilient-but-private-sector-faces-challenges
21.  The World Bank predicts that Morocco’s economic growth will continue in 2024, with a projected growth rate of 3.6%. This follows a recovery in the economy, demonstrating resilience against global challenges. For the period of 2025-2030, the nation’s new development model (NMD) is expected to play a significant role in shaping future growth dynamics.
22.  Statista. (2024). Morocco: Unemployment rate from 2004 to 2023. Retrieved from https://www.statista.com/statistics/502794/unemployment-rate-in-morocco/ 
23.  Bouramdane, A.-A. (2023). Assessment of CMIP6 Multi-Model Projections Worldwide: Which Regions Are Getting Warmer and Are Going through a Drought in Africa and Morocco? What Changes fromCMIP5 to CMIP6? Sustainability, 15, 690. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15010690 
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25.  Office des Changes. (2024). Indicateurs des échanges extérieurs à fin juillet 2024. Retrieved from https://www.oc.gov.ma/fr/actualites/indicateurs-des-echanges-exterieurs-a-fin-juillet-2024 
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27.  In Morocco, bank credits primarily refer to loans provided by financial institutions to the private sector, which can include consumers and businesses. These loans are a significant part of the domestic credit landscape and contribute to the country’s GDP. To access consumer credit, individuals typically need to have resident status in Morocco.
28.  MASEN. (2023). GREEN HYDROGEN MOROCCAN OFFER. An operational and incentive offer with a simplified investor pathway. Retrieved from https://www.masen.ma/en/green-hydrogen-moroccan-offer  
29. Ibid
30.  Saoud, Karim (OCP Group). (2023, May 19). Nous ambitionnons de produire un million de tonnes d’ammoniac vert d’ici 2027. La Tribune. Retrieved from https://afrique.latribune.fr/think-tank/entretiens/2023-05-19/nous-ambitionnons-deproduire-un-million-de-tonnes-d-ammoniac-vert-d-ici-2027-karim-saoud-ocpgroup-962815.html 
31.  El Kanabi, Mohamed Jaouad. (2023, May 26). Hydrogène vert : Total Energies annonce un mégaprojet hybride au Maroc. Hespress. Retrieved from https://fr.hespress.com/315930-hydrogene-vert-total-energies-annonce-un-megaprojet-hybride-au-maroc.html#   
32.  Power-to-X (also P2X) is the conversion of electricity or its storage using excess electrical energy, typically during periods when intermittent renewable energy production exceeds demand. Power-to-X conversion technologies allow electrical energy to be decoupled for use in other sectors (such as transport or chemicals), possibly using the energy supplied by electricity produced by a dedicated installation. A large number of pathways and technologies are encompassed by the term. In the terminology, the X can refer to any of the following: power-to-gas, power-to-hydrogen, power-to-ammonia, power-to-chemicals, power-to-fuel, power-to-liquid, power-to-methane, power-to-food, power-to-power, and power-to-syngas. Although: electric vehicle charging, space heating and cooling, and water heating can be time-shifted to match production, these are more commonly referred to as demand response. Collectively, Power-to-X systems that use excess energy fall under the umbrella of flexibility measures and are particularly useful in energy systems with high shares of renewable energy generation and/or strong decarbonization targets.
33.  El Youssoufi Attou, S., & Nadir, B. (2024). Émergence de l’hydrogène vert au Maroc : perspectives juridiques. Revue Internationale du Chercheur, 5(1), 508-531. Retrieved from https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/resource/MAR_LTS_Dec2021.pdf 
34.  The “Power-to-X Roadmap” refers to strategic frameworks that outline the steps for converting renewable electricity into various forms of energy carriers, such as hydrogen, synthetic fuels, or chemicals. It integrates various applications and sectors to enhance energy transition efforts, promoting sustainability and addressing international energy challenges.
35.  World Energy Council. (2018). INTERNATIONAL ASPECTS OF A POWER-TO-X ROADMAP A report prepared for the World Energy Council Germany. Retrieved from https://www.weltenergierat.de/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/20181018_WEC_Germany_PTXroadmap_Full-study-englisch.pdf 
36.  Torres, Maria Paula, & Perner, Jens. (2024). Energy: Paving the way for a global power-to-x industry in Morocco. Frontier Economics. Retrieved from https://www.frontier-economics.com/uk/en/news-and-insights/case-studies/case-study-i8853-energy-paving-the-way-for-a-global-power-to-x-industry-in-morocco/ 
37.  Info Mineo. (2020). “Power to X”: What role could Morocco play in this new paradigm? Retrieved from https://infomineo.com/natural-resources-energy/power-to-x/ 
38.  Schinko, T., Bohm, S., Komendantova, N. et al. (2019). Morocco’s sustainable energy transition and the role of financing costs: a participatory electricity system modeling approach. Energ Sustain Soc, 9(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13705-018-0186-8
39.  Boucetta, M. (2023). Policy Brief: Le marché de l’hydrogène vert :l’équation industrielle de la transition énergétique.  Policy Center, 01(23). Retrieved from https://www.policycenter.ma/sites/default/files/2023-01/PB_01-23_Boucetta.pdf 
40.  Bumpus, A., & Comello, S. (2017). Emerging clean energy technology investment trends. Nat Clim Chang, 7, 382-385. https://doi.org/10.1038/nclimate3306 
41.  Kingdom of Morocco, Head of Government. (2024). Morocco Offer. Retrieved from https://www.mem.gov.ma/PublishingImages/Lists/Lst_Actualites/AllItems/Circulaire_H_vert_-_En.pdf 
42.  Alhamwi, A., Kleinhans, D., Weitemeyer, S., & Vogt, T. (2015). Moroccan National Energy Strategy reviewed from a meteorological perspective. Energy Strategy Reviews, 6, 39-47. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esr.2015.02.002
43.  Agyekum, Ephraim Bonah, Christabel Nutakor, Ahmed M. Agwa, & Salah Kamel. (2022). A Critical Review of Renewable Hydrogen Production Methods: Factors Affecting Their Scale-Up and Its Role in Future Energy Generation. Membranes, 12(2). https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes12020173 
44.  Touili, S., Alami Merrouni, A., El Hassouani, Y., Amrani, A., Rachidi; S. (2020). Analyse du rendement et du coût de production de l’hydrogène électrolytique à grande échelle à partir de différentes technologies solaires et sous plusieurs zones climatiques marocaines. Journal international de l’énergie hydrogène, 45 (51), 26785-26799. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2020.07.118
45.  Bouramdane, A.-A. (2023). Hydrogène, Captage et Stockage du CO2 et Sobriété Énergétique : Tour d’Horizon. Energie/mines & carrières. DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.7774592. Retrieved from https://energiemines.ma/hydrogene-captage-et-stockage-du-co2-et-sobriete-energetique-tour-dhorizon/ 
46.  Ourya, I., Nabil, N., Abderafi, S., Boutammachte, N., & Rachidi, S. (2023). Assessment of green hydrogen production in Morocco, using hybrid renewable sources (PV and wind). International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 48(96), 37428-37442. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2022.12.362
47. Ibid
48.  The “Cluster Green H2” refers to a strategic initiative or network aimed at developing a robust green hydrogen ecosystem in Africa. Green hydrogen, produced using renewable energy sources like wind and solar through the electrolysis of water, is seen as a sustainable alternative to fossil fuels and a key element in the global transition to a low-carbon economy. In Africa, with its abundant renewable energy potential, green hydrogen clusters are emerging to harness these resources and promote the continent as a key player in the global green hydrogen market.
49.  Fortescue Metals Group (FMG) is an Australian iron ore company that has rapidly grown to become one of the largest iron ore producers in the world. In recent years, Fortescue has expanded its focus beyond mining, particularly through its subsidiary Fortescue Future Industries (FFI), which is leading the company’s efforts in renewable energy and green hydrogen.
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53.  https://www.advantageaustria.org/ma/news/Circulaire_Offre_Maroc_Hydrogene_vert.pdf 
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