Using and abusing drugs dates back a long time. Among the earliest enthusiasts of hemp were the ancient Egyptians, who used it to treat glaucoma and fever. Yet, the oldest evidence of cannabis use so far comes from Israel.

The drug’s effects only last so long in the body, but its residue may stick to surfaces for millennia, as we learned from case of the 2,700-year-old altar found in the Negev desert. The altar that once stood in the temple at Tel Arad reveals that the ancient Israelites were no strangers to experiencing the “divine”, thanks to the drug, which was presumably burned to get worshipers high on its psychoactive compounds.

The ancient Chinese also burned weed in enclosed spaces. At the Jirzankal cemetery 3,000 meters high in the Pamir Mountains in what is now western China, archaeologists found a set of wooden incense burners containing cannabis residues. The cannabis, approximately 2,500 years old, had surprisingly high levels of THC, which is the compound responsible for the narcotic’s mind-altering qualities. The people gathered at the funeral would apparently mourn the departed by respectfully inhaling the fumes (with or without giggles).

The father of history, Herodotus, who traveled the ancient world far and wide, reported a similar ritual among the Scythians. According to the historian, the nomadic people enjoyed the drug recreationally under the umbrella of purification rituals and often during burial ceremonies.

“The Scythians thereafter take seeds from the hemp and throw them on red-hot stones, where [they smolder] and give off fumes,” writes Herodotus. “They cover this with mats and crawl under while fumes emerge so densely that no Greek steam bath could produce more. The Scythians howl with joy at their vapor bath.”

The Thracians similarly used cannabis in post-burial “cleansing” rituals. Herodotus viewed the practice as a means of cleansing the body and mind – a slightly altered version of a steam bath.

Laughing Weed

The Greeks too fell under the charm of the narcotic quite early on, focusing primarily on the “joyful” side of the drug that they referred to as the “laughing weed” (so baptised by the Greek physician Dioscorides).

Galen of Pergamum, the Greek physician to the Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius, described the consumption of cannabis cakes (the precursors of space cookies) at drinking parties: “it causes ill-digestion and stomach-ache, is headache-causing, and foul tasting. And still, nevertheless, some people, after drying it, consume it along with other desserts.”

In his work, he notes that consuming cannabis in moderation can cause euphoria, yet excessive consumption of the drug can result in intoxication, dehydration, and lead to long-lasting impotence. He further recounts how the drug was also mixed with wine and was used as an ice breaker, producing among the invitees “joy and laughter”.

Dioscorides focused on the more physical aspects of the drug. He referred to it as the sex killer. He advised taking the drug to reduce sexual desire, for example, for people with unhealthy urges. The Roman philosopher Pliny the Elder, in his ‘Natural History’, describes both the beneficial and harmful aspects of cannabis. From muscle relaxation, treatment of gout and burns, to migraines and impotence: “Its seed is said to extinguish men’s semen”, he deplores.

Opium: The ancient ‘it drug’

Another “beloved” drug among the ancients was opium. One of the indications that our ancestors regarded the poppy as more than just a pretty flower comes from its given names; for instance, the Sumerians referred to it as ‘Hul Gil’, which translates to happy plant.

Happy indeed: in ancient Egypt, opium poppy extract was used to pacify crying children (forming young addicts). From the archaeological finds, it appears that opium was the “it drug” of the ancient world. Countless poppy-shaped ceramic pots, dating as early as 1600 B.C.E., were found throughout the Levant, Egypt, and the Middle East, containing opium residues and sometimes other psychoactive substances for a “bit of extra fun”.

Their widespread uniformity suggests that a large-scale manufacturing and distribution network of opium was in place (an ancient version of a drug cartel?). However, one of the oldest vessels containing the drug was found in a Canaanite necropolis at Tel Yehud, in modern-day Israel. The 3,300-year-old discovery reveals that the drug trade, even in its early days, was very ambitious. The chemical traces of opium found within the ceramics indicate that the drug was imported from Cyprus, highlighting the complexity and sheer size of the logistical network of this period. Unfortunately, there is not much we know about any ancient “drug lords”.

As for the drug’s usage, opium was known to take away “painful memories and the bite of pain and anger”, writes Homer in The Odyssey. “Those who took this drug dissolved in wine could not shed a tear even at the death of a parent. Indeed, not even if his brother or son were put to the sword before his eyes”. As the ancient Greek poet notes, the drug rendered both the body and mind numb.

For many, feeling nothing was a better option than feeling too much. The second-century B.C.E. Greek poet and physician Nicander warned his readers against going overboard with the drug. In his work ‘Alexipharmaka’, he presents a vivid picture of what overdosing looks like: “Learn further that when men drink the tears of the poppy, whose seeds are in the head, they fall fast asleep; for their extremities are chilled; their eyes do not open but are bound quite motionless by their eyelids. With the exhaustion, an odorous sweat bathes all the body, turns the cheeks pale, and causes the lips to swell; the bonds of the jaw are relaxed, and through the throat the labored breath passes faint and chill. And often either the livid nail or wrinkled nostril is a harbinger of death; sometimes, too, the sunken eyes.”

The savant advised administering hot wine, honey, and other substances to help the miserable wake up. If that did not help, he urged, slapping the person until they became conscious. The Greek pharmacologist Dioscorides also warned his readers against overdosing. “It kills,” he stated bluntly.

The good doctor

The effects of opium on the human body were also studied beyond the classical world. The Persian philosopher and physician Avicenna, known as one of the greatest thinkers and medical scholars in history, was not a fan. The savant urged against administering opium as an analgesic. Instead, he advised treating the cause of pain, meaning looking for its origin rather than silencing it with the narcotic: “Pain can be alleviated in three ways: By eliminating the cause of pain. By the use of sedatives such as alcohol. By the use of analgesics such as opium. But the true way for pain relief is the first one.”

Avicenna stresses that the abuse of the drug can lead to memory loss and cognitive impairment, and, of course, ultimately death. “I saw a patient who died due to rectally administered opium,” he shared.

There were no safe options. The use of opioids, according to the physician, should be the last line of treatment: “Physicians should be able to predict the duration and severity of pain and the patient’s tolerance and then weigh the risks and benefits of opium administration. Between opioids, select the less potent one and combine it with its antidotes.” Avicenna also urged “pulse monitoring” to prevent overdosing: “If you have no other option but to use opioids, closely monitor the patient’s pulse to avoid overdosing.”

The only battle Aurelius lost

In fact, Romans, usually those with thicker wallets, purchased opium precisely for that reason: think of it as a luxury suicide drug. For the Romans, taking one’s own life was often viewed as a sign of courage, an expression of a strong will.

For the Stoics, for instance, who taught that virtue is the only good, death was the only guarantee of liberation. As Seneca asserts, what matters is not how long we live, but how well. “Life,” he states, “does not hold anyone by force… If it suits you, live, if not you are allowed to return from where you came from.”

Many preferred to leave the “party” slightly sooner. Those who experienced chronic pain, suffered from incurable diseases, or were elderly chose to meet death with the help of the drug instead of relying on standard methods. Hanging oneself was regarded by the ancients as the most degrading form of suicide, while self-stabbing or drawing demanded an extra dose of courage and sometimes help from a friend. Among many other options, there was also the “sophisticated” vein opening usually accompanied by a bath in warm water, which stimulated blood circulation. Drifting to the other world on a “soft cloud” seemed to many as a pretty good death.

Theophrastus, the Greek philosopher and pupil of the much beloved Aristotle, writes that “from the juice of the poppy and hemlock comes easy and painless death”. It is also no coincidence that both Greek sibling divinities, Hypnos (the god of sleep), and Thanatos (the god of death), are often depicted with poppies.

Opium seemed to have conquered Rome. Physicians prescribed it for concealing pain and treating insomnia. The drug was usually administered in the form of the “cretic wine”, an opium-based drink or a slightly less potent mekonion made from poppy leaves. Opium was even used to treat coughing and diarrhea; no wonder many developed tolerance and experienced more difficulties committing suicide.

One of the most famous opium addicts was the Stoic emperor Marcus Aurelius. According to the historian Cassius Dio, the emperor relied on the drug to relieve his chest and stomach pains while he was on a military campaign.

“They say that this habit,” writes Dio, “made it possible for him to endure this and other things.” Galen also provides an insight into Marcus Aurelius’ fight with addiction, which was the only battle that he really lost. “Without opium, the emperor would become unable to address his troops or prepare for battle. He also struggled with opium’s many side effects. Though it helped him sleep at night, it also made him too drowsy to perform his duties in the day.” When the resolute emperor decided to end the toxic relationship, he started experiencing what Galen called “dry humors”, which translates into modern terms as withdrawal syndrome.

Aristotle the dealer?

Opium was easily available. However, not everyone could afford it, unlike wine, which was relatively accessible to most people.

In the eternal city of Rome, Galen recommended a dealer close to the Via Sacra near the Forum. In Capua, drug dealers occupied an infamous area called the Seplasia, which quickly became a term used for mind-altering drugs.

Sometimes things got a bit personal and nasty. The Greek writer Athenaeus speaks of a letter from Epicurus in which he accuses Aristotle of being a drug dealer: “Even though I have a lot more to say about the foolish things the drug-dealer [Aristotle] said, and although I know that Epicurus, who was the most faithful to the truth, said these things about him in his Letter on Lifestyles, that after he consumed his inheritance he first went on a military expedition and when that went badly he moved on to selling drugs. When Plato opened his school, Epicurus says, [Aristotle] traveled there and attended the lectures. Because he was not a moron, bit by bit, he pursued a more reflective path.”

A mistake of youth? Could be. In any case, Aristotle was not a newbie to drugs. He even described opium as a “hypnotic drug”. Aristotle’s predecessor, Socrates, may have known a few things too. In Aristophanes’ ‘Clouds’, the philosopher’s school is filled with dazed and confused students who are high on drugs, seeking answers about the universe. Of course, the play is a satire, but there may have been some truth in it.

For the inhabitants of the ancient world, there was also another way to alter reality. Proclus, known as the last prominent ancient Greek philosopher, describes the experience of those consuming psychotropic drugs during the Eleusinian Mysteries: “They cause sympathy of the soul with the ritual in a way that is unintelligible to us, and divine, so that some of the initials are stricken with panic, being filled with divine awe; others assimilate themselves to the holy symbols, leave their own identity, become at home with the gods, and experience divine possession.”

During these secret religious rites, the initiates ingested a psychoactive drug called kykeon, which contained LSD-like hallucinogens. Otherwise, there was the Blue Lotus, and the Deadly Nightshade, which are both immortalized in The Odyssey, the Mad Honey, Henbane, a fungus called Ergot, and, among many others, the Dreamfish that was not for the beginners, as it is said to result in hallucinations that could last days.

Generally, the side effects of those drugs were described as ranging from experiencing anxiety and fear, which were then followed by euphoric feelings, hallucinations, tranquility, altered consciousness, and even an increased libido, for better or worse.