Despite what it calls only ‘a modest’ total capacity addition of 306MW in 2024, the International Hydropower Association (IHA) says hydropower is still a vital component of the South American energy mix. Currently providing approximately 45% of South American electricity demand, thanks to the region’s natural resources such as the Andes mountains and the Amazon basin, there is still vast potential for generation and only 30% of its hydropower potential is being utilised. 

In its 2025 World Hydropower Outlook, the IHA outlined some of the challenges facing regional development, such as maintaining grid stability as renewable energy deployment accelerates. In response to this, South America is playing a pioneering role in developing hybrid systems which combine hydro and other renewables to maximise sustainability and efficiency. A leading example of this approach, the IHA says, is the deployment of PV arrays on hydro reservoir surfaces.

However, there are also what the association terms as being ‘reputational challenges’ in the region. Explaining that the industry is responding to these with a strong focus on demonstrating sustainability in such an ecologically sensitive environment, IHA gives the example of Brazil’s 198MW Mascarenhas plant which was recently awarded gold certification under its Hydropower Sustainability Standard, following on from Brazil’s 3.75GW Jirau plant which also achieved gold certification in 2023. In addition, Colombia’s 2.45GW Ituango and 19.9MW Chorreritas projects were awarded silver certification. 

Pumped storage remains largely untapped in Latin America, but a 2024 IADB report highlights its potential to boost renewable integration as ageing hydro plants modernise. The two-stage study identifies 179 possible sites across 11 countries and lays out plans for a pilot project in Pisagua, Tarapacá, Chile, providing 640MW with 12 hours of storage. The pilot uses two 4.5Mm³ reservoirs, four 160MW Francis turbines, and two 220kV lines. The US$570 million project would be constructed over 48 months at a cost of US$32/MWh.

Severe droughts since 2024 have critically impaired Argentinian hydropower generation. It declined by 15% compared to 2023, with a further 34% drop in January 2025 due to extremely low river inflows. And although this led to power cuts and higher electricity costs, the IHA says the Argentinian hydropower sector is undergoing major growth.

Modernising ageing facilities has been a priority but several large-scale projects are also nearing completion with new developments planned. Projects include the 1310MW Santa Cruz hydroelectric plant, slated for completion by 2026, and the 950MW Condor Cli Dam set for commissioning by 2027. Still in permitting stages, the 871MW Chihuido project is expected online by 2029. 

As a whole though, Argentina has still only harnessed 20% of its hydropower potential. The Inter-American Development Bank recently identified 23 potential pumped storage projects with average installed capacities of 414.5MW.

Described as ‘growing significantly’, Bolivia’s hydropower sector continues to move forward with major projects. The 3000MW Rio Madera hydropower project should start on a feasibility study and environmental licensing soon, with possible commissioning by 2031. In addition, the 1.16TWh Ivirizu complex, and the first stage of the 203MW Miguillas hydroelectric plant, are both expected to be finalised this year.

A severe dry spell in late 2024 reduced Brazil’s hydropower output to a three-year low, with hydropower falling to a 50% share of the energy mix during September. Anticipation of low water flows in the future has been a limiting factor in the development of new sites, according to the IHA, and in 2024 only 56MW from 11 new hydropower projects was added to the country’s total generating capacity. 

With Brazilian installed hydropower capacity now standing at 110GW, an additional 1.3GW is licensed or under construction. There are currently 32 advanced-stage projects totalling 442MW and 60 licensed projects awaiting construction.

Czech energy company ENERGO-PRO also recently agreed to purchase the 350MW Baixo Iguaçu hydropower plant in the state of Paraná. Commissioned in 2019, the plant plays a critical role in regulating the flow of the Iguaçu Falls, one of the world’s largest waterfall systems. It produces clean, renewable energy sufficient to power one million Brazilians, covering 8% of Paraná state’s annual consumption. The power plant was built between 2014 and 2019 with a total investment of €500 million. Its concession runs until 2049.

Meanwhile, ENGIE Brasil Energia has signed an agreement to acquire the 393MW Santo Antônio do Jari Hydropower Plant, located in Amapá and Pará, and the 219MW Cachoeira Caldeirão Hydropower Plant in Amapá. 

Having realised approximately 53% of its estimated 16GW hydropower potential, Chile is described as exhibiting significant potential for small and micro run-of-river projects and pumped storage. Although the country’s installed generating capacity has ‘grown spectacularly in recent years’, the IHA admits hydropower has only played a relatively small role in this.

However, in 2024, four projects added 157.7MW to Chile’s hydropower capacity. These were:

• Los Cóndores (150MW).
• Pasada Piedras Negras (3MW).
• La Con anza (2.6MW).
• Nueva Ampliación PMGD Las Flores (2.1MW).

Four more projects, with a combined investment of US$677 million, are also under construction with the 52MW Los Lagos run-of-river project also recently receiving approval. 

Hydropower, with an installed capacity of 13207MW, accounts for nearly 64% of the Colombia’s total energy generation. Although construction of the country’s largest hydropower project, the 2400MW run-of-river Ituango scheme, is well under way and expected to reach full capacity by 2027, elsewhere hydropower development is described as lagging. Just two projects were completed in 2024 – the 10.5MW TZ II and the 2MW Alejandría. Two major projects, Porvenir II (352MW) and Miel II (120MW), have been approved and the IHA believes these can help stimulate future growth for the Colombian hydropower sector.

Digital transformation can be viewed as a powerful innovation driver in energy transition efforts. However, according to a new study, there remains a notable gap in research addressing comprehensive, large-scale digital transformation projects in hydropower. EG Gabon et al say that very few existing studies have covered the scope of digitalising a significant proportion of an entire nation’s hydropower infrastructure. In addition they believe few works have delved into the depth and complexity of digital solution architectures tailored for large-scale hydropower plants, with even fewer studies exploring the direct impact of these strategies on national energy policies and the integration of renewable energy sources.

In their research, EG Gabon et al say they address such a critical gap by presenting a real-world, large-scale case study of the digital transformation of Colombia’s hydropower sector. The investigation discusses in detail the digital transformation strategy for the hydropower plants of one of the major players in the Colombian generation market, detailing the automation concept for each individual unit and the integrated architecture for all the hydropower generation systems. 

Enel Colombia is one of the largest power generation companies in the Colombian electricity market. Its digital transformation involves the digitalisation of 27 hydroelectric generating units and four pumping stations distributed over 12 plants. These include the:

• 276MW Paraíso.
• 324MW Guaca.
• 19.4MW Charquito.
• 56.8MW Tequendama.
• 35MW Salto II.
• 1MW Limonar.
• 18MW Laguneta.
• 150MW Darío Valencia.
• 1250MW Guavio.
• •10MW Guavio menor.
• 200MW Quimbo.
• 540MW Betania.

Ecuador has only tapped 7% of its hydropower potential, with its hydropower system currently remaining under pressure due to droughts which have triggered electricity blackouts. The IHA says that with 72% of the country’s power generation dependent on water, the government is turning to solar projects to add resilience.

Government initiatives have been designed to help Ecuador meet its long-term goal of sourcing 80% of its electricity from renewable sources and encourage greater private sector participation. Key projects include two new run-of-river plants, which will add approximately 150MW, and the 3600MW Zamora G8 project which is now in final feasibility stages, with the 254MW Toachi-Pilatón complex nearing completion. 

Guyana has revived its flagship 165MW Amaila Falls hydropower project after years of delays and failed attempts. IHA says Amaila is central to Guyana’s low carbon strategy, with expectations it will supply more than 50% of the nation’s electricity, reducing dependence on oil. However, key hurdles including financing challenges, indigenous consultation, and environmental concerns remain ahead of the targeted 2029 commissioning date. 

Peru has harnessed 8% of its hydropower potential of 69.45GW. Recent policy initiatives seek to accelerate concessions and consent processes, and shorten environmental review timelines. Six projects totalling 664MW will enter commercial operation between 2025 and 2027. These include the 209.3MW San Gabán III which is located in Carabaya province, Puno. Designed to generate approximately 1.25TWh annually, it will bolster supply to Peru’s southern grid and support the mining sector. In addition, construction of four small hydropower projects is more than 25% complete – CH Santa Lorenza (19MW), CH Anashironi (20MW), Centauro I (12.5MW),. 

Engineering and consulting firm AFRY has been selected by Electroperú to oversee the modernisation and life extension of the country’s Santiago Antúnez de Mayolo and Restitución hydropower plants. The project aims to upgrade systems and equipment at both facilities to maintain operational continuity and improve reliability. 

Electroperú S.A., Peru’s state-owned energy provider, operates the Mantaro Hydroelectric Complex, which includes the 798MW Santiago Antúnez de Mayolo plant and the 210MW Restitución plant in the Andes. Built in 1973, these plants are essential to the country’s electricity generation.

The modernisation effort, which began in May 2024, will last nearly three years. It includes replacing ageing equipment and upgrading auxiliary systems to extend their operational life, along with training programmes to ensure ongoing safety and reliability. AFRY’s role covers contract review, risk analysis, technical coordination, quality assessment, and supervision of factory and on-site testing. The firm aims to ensure that the project meets the highest technical and safety standards.

In 2024, hydropower accounted for over 50% of Uruguay’s total electricity production which climbed to a record 14.4TWh. Work also began on the modernisation of the Rincón de Baygorria hydroelectric plant during 2024, with plans to increase installed capacity to 120MW. The project is managed by Andritz in consortium with SACEEM. 

Venezuela’s hydropower sector has been struggling with declining capacity due to economic challenges and structural neglect of key infrastructure, such as the 10,200MW Guri Dam and the Caroní River cascade. So recent efforts have been focused on restoring existing facilities, such as the reactivation of the General José Antonio Páez hydroelectric complex in Barinas, adding 120MW to the grid. In December 2024, the Latin American Development Bank also authorised a US$380 million loan to help improve the efficiency and extend the operational life of the country’s Simón Bolívar plant. 

References

2025 World Hydropower Outlook – Opportunities to advance net zero. International Hydropower Association.

Designing a Digital Transformation Strategy for Hydropower Generation in Colombia Edgar Guevara Pabón, Bladhimir Cortés González Luis Daniel Benavides Navarro, Iván Camilo Durán Tovar, Andagustin Marulanda Guerra. Volume 13, 2025.

Formalised by treaties in 1906 and 1944 between Mexico and the US entered the two nations into an agreement to regulate the upper part of the Rio Grande basin. However, after more than 100 years, things have changed. Because although the priorities of the two sharing countries and conditions in the region have changed significantly since the 1940s, interpretation of the 1944 Treaty has not sufficiently evolved to meet these challenges, according to new research by Sanchez et al in Water International.

The Rio Grande basin has since made it to the list of the most endangered basins in the world, with studies showing its natural flow has been reduced by at least 80% annually. And with more persistent droughts, erratic rainfall and increased heat likely to be the norm going forwards, increasing water scarcity has raised’ legal and constitutional questions’ not only over the supposed ownership of water, but over priorities for water uses and users. Indeed, conditions are described as being particularly bad for Mexico. Three times since 1994 it has had to delay water deliveries until the following five-year cycle because it had fallen into water ‘debt’ with the US.

A more suitable approach could see the Treaty evolving into a more adaptable and beneficial mechanism for sharing the waters of the Rio Grande under the current uncertain and water-scarce conditions, which are expected to prevail into the future. Committing to delivering fixed amounts of water, the authors stress, simply does not make sense in a basin that cannot provide additional water in response to expected future growth. Ultimately, the two countries must recognise that the system needs both more flexibility and greater reliability in the amount and timing of water deliveries to both countries.

This will require a major change in the way both countries manage water resources in the border region and will require time and accountability from federal and state governments in both countries. Mexico, as the treaty prescribes, shoulders the greater burden for ensuring reliable water deliveries to Texas.

“At every political level things have changed,” Sanchez et al state. “The treaty cannot bring or create more water; climate change is reducing water availability on both sides of the border; existing practices and uses cannot continue without significant changes in the extant lax governance systems; and with the model of intensive and extensive agriculture, little will be accomplished without cooperation”.

According to the authors, both countries need to acknowledge that in its current form the Treaty is inadequate and needs to evolve to meet the changing needs of the Lower Rio Grande basin. There needs to be mutual commitment to developing an adaptive framework that flexibly accounts for unpredictable climatic changes, as well as growing populations and shifting economic demands. In addition, the involvement of stakeholders representing diverse interests – including from agriculture, industry, non-governmental organizations, municipal and state governments, and academia – is critical for achieving more effective and balanced negotiations over transboundary waters.

Reference

Rosario Sanchez, Stephen P. Mumme & Gabriel Eckstein (2025), The extraordinary drought provision and the future of the Rio Grande water deliveries under the 1944 US–Mexico water treaty: an exploratory policy analysis. Water International, 50:2, 171-188,

Despite what it calls only ‘a modest’ total capacity addition of 306MW in 2024, the International Hydropower Association (IHA) says hydropower is still a vital component of the South American energy mix. Currently providing approximately 45% of South American electricity demand, thanks to the region’s natural resources such as the Andes mountains and the Amazon basin, there is still vast potential for generation and only 30% of its hydropower potential is being utilised. 

In its 2025 World Hydropower Outlook, the IHA outlined some of the challenges facing regional development, such as maintaining grid stability as renewable energy deployment accelerates. In response to this, South America is playing a pioneering role in developing hybrid systems which combine hydro and other renewables to maximise sustainability and efficiency. A leading example of this approach, the IHA says, is the deployment of PV arrays on hydro reservoir surfaces.

However, there are also what the association terms as being ‘reputational challenges’ in the region. Explaining that the industry is responding to these with a strong focus on demonstrating sustainability in such an ecologically sensitive environment, IHA gives the example of Brazil’s 198MW Mascarenhas plant which was recently awarded gold certification under its Hydropower Sustainability Standard, following on from Brazil’s 3.75GW Jirau plant which also achieved gold certification in 2023. In addition, Colombia’s 2.45GW Ituango and 19.9MW Chorreritas projects were awarded silver certification. 

Pumped storage remains largely untapped in Latin America, but a 2024 IADB report highlights its potential to boost renewable integration as ageing hydro plants modernise. The two-stage study identifies 179 possible sites across 11 countries and lays out plans for a pilot project in Pisagua, Tarapacá, Chile, providing 640MW with 12 hours of storage. The pilot uses two 4.5Mm³ reservoirs, four 160MW Francis turbines, and two 220kV lines. The US$570 million project would be constructed over 48 months at a cost of US$32/MWh.

Severe droughts since 2024 have critically impaired Argentinian hydropower generation. It declined by 15% compared to 2023, with a further 34% drop in January 2025 due to extremely low river inflows. And although this led to power cuts and higher electricity costs, the IHA says the Argentinian hydropower sector is undergoing major growth.

Modernising ageing facilities has been a priority but several large-scale projects are also nearing completion with new developments planned. Projects include the 1310MW Santa Cruz hydroelectric plant, slated for completion by 2026, and the 950MW Condor Cli Dam set for commissioning by 2027. Still in permitting stages, the 871MW Chihuido project is expected online by 2029. 

As a whole though, Argentina has still only harnessed 20% of its hydropower potential. The Inter-American Development Bank recently identified 23 potential pumped storage projects with average installed capacities of 414.5MW.

Described as ‘growing significantly’, Bolivia’s hydropower sector continues to move forward with major projects. The 3000MW Rio Madera hydropower project should start on a feasibility study and environmental licensing soon, with possible commissioning by 2031. In addition, the 1.16TWh Ivirizu complex, and the first stage of the 203MW Miguillas hydroelectric plant, are both expected to be finalised this year.

A severe dry spell in late 2024 reduced Brazil’s hydropower output to a three-year low, with hydropower falling to a 50% share of the energy mix during September. Anticipation of low water flows in the future has been a limiting factor in the development of new sites, according to the IHA, and in 2024 only 56MW from 11 new hydropower projects was added to the country’s total generating capacity. 

With Brazilian installed hydropower capacity now standing at 110GW, an additional 1.3GW is licensed or under construction. There are currently 32 advanced-stage projects totalling 442MW and 60 licensed projects awaiting construction.

Czech energy company ENERGO-PRO also recently agreed to purchase the 350MW Baixo Iguaçu hydropower plant in the state of Paraná. Commissioned in 2019, the plant plays a critical role in regulating the flow of the Iguaçu Falls, one of the world’s largest waterfall systems. It produces clean, renewable energy sufficient to power one million Brazilians, covering 8% of Paraná state’s annual consumption. The power plant was built between 2014 and 2019 with a total investment of €500 million. Its concession runs until 2049.

Meanwhile, ENGIE Brasil Energia has signed an agreement to acquire the 393MW Santo Antônio do Jari Hydropower Plant, located in Amapá and Pará, and the 219MW Cachoeira Caldeirão Hydropower Plant in Amapá. 

Having realised approximately 53% of its estimated 16GW hydropower potential, Chile is described as exhibiting significant potential for small and micro run-of-river projects and pumped storage. Although the country’s installed generating capacity has ‘grown spectacularly in recent years’, the IHA admits hydropower has only played a relatively small role in this.

However, in 2024, four projects added 157.7MW to Chile’s hydropower capacity. These were:

• Los Cóndores (150MW).
• Pasada Piedras Negras (3MW).
• La Con anza (2.6MW).
• Nueva Ampliación PMGD Las Flores (2.1MW).

Four more projects, with a combined investment of US$677 million, are also under construction with the 52MW Los Lagos run-of-river project also recently receiving approval. 

Hydropower, with an installed capacity of 13207MW, accounts for nearly 64% of the Colombia’s total energy generation. Although construction of the country’s largest hydropower project, the 2400MW run-of-river Ituango scheme, is well under way and expected to reach full capacity by 2027, elsewhere hydropower development is described as lagging. Just two projects were completed in 2024 – the 10.5MW TZ II and the 2MW Alejandría. Two major projects, Porvenir II (352MW) and Miel II (120MW), have been approved and the IHA believes these can help stimulate future growth for the Colombian hydropower sector.

Digital transformation can be viewed as a powerful innovation driver in energy transition efforts. However, according to a new study, there remains a notable gap in research addressing comprehensive, large-scale digital transformation projects in hydropower. EG Gabon et al say that very few existing studies have covered the scope of digitalising a significant proportion of an entire nation’s hydropower infrastructure. In addition they believe few works have delved into the depth and complexity of digital solution architectures tailored for large-scale hydropower plants, with even fewer studies exploring the direct impact of these strategies on national energy policies and the integration of renewable energy sources.

In their research, EG Gabon et al say they address such a critical gap by presenting a real-world, large-scale case study of the digital transformation of Colombia’s hydropower sector. The investigation discusses in detail the digital transformation strategy for the hydropower plants of one of the major players in the Colombian generation market, detailing the automation concept for each individual unit and the integrated architecture for all the hydropower generation systems. 

Enel Colombia is one of the largest power generation companies in the Colombian electricity market. Its digital transformation involves the digitalisation of 27 hydroelectric generating units and four pumping stations distributed over 12 plants. These include the:

• 276MW Paraíso.
• 324MW Guaca.
• 19.4MW Charquito.
• 56.8MW Tequendama.
• 35MW Salto II.
• 1MW Limonar.
• 18MW Laguneta.
• 150MW Darío Valencia.
• 1250MW Guavio.
• •10MW Guavio menor.
• 200MW Quimbo.
• 540MW Betania.

Ecuador has only tapped 7% of its hydropower potential, with its hydropower system currently remaining under pressure due to droughts which have triggered electricity blackouts. The IHA says that with 72% of the country’s power generation dependent on water, the government is turning to solar projects to add resilience.

Government initiatives have been designed to help Ecuador meet its long-term goal of sourcing 80% of its electricity from renewable sources and encourage greater private sector participation. Key projects include two new run-of-river plants, which will add approximately 150MW, and the 3600MW Zamora G8 project which is now in final feasibility stages, with the 254MW Toachi-Pilatón complex nearing completion. 

Guyana has revived its flagship 165MW Amaila Falls hydropower project after years of delays and failed attempts. IHA says Amaila is central to Guyana’s low carbon strategy, with expectations it will supply more than 50% of the nation’s electricity, reducing dependence on oil. However, key hurdles including financing challenges, indigenous consultation, and environmental concerns remain ahead of the targeted 2029 commissioning date. 

Peru has harnessed 8% of its hydropower potential of 69.45GW. Recent policy initiatives seek to accelerate concessions and consent processes, and shorten environmental review timelines. Six projects totalling 664MW will enter commercial operation between 2025 and 2027. These include the 209.3MW San Gabán III which is located in Carabaya province, Puno. Designed to generate approximately 1.25TWh annually, it will bolster supply to Peru’s southern grid and support the mining sector. In addition, construction of four small hydropower projects is more than 25% complete – CH Santa Lorenza (19MW), CH Anashironi (20MW), Centauro I (12.5MW),. 

Engineering and consulting firm AFRY has been selected by Electroperú to oversee the modernisation and life extension of the country’s Santiago Antúnez de Mayolo and Restitución hydropower plants. The project aims to upgrade systems and equipment at both facilities to maintain operational continuity and improve reliability. 

Electroperú S.A., Peru’s state-owned energy provider, operates the Mantaro Hydroelectric Complex, which includes the 798MW Santiago Antúnez de Mayolo plant and the 210MW Restitución plant in the Andes. Built in 1973, these plants are essential to the country’s electricity generation.

The modernisation effort, which began in May 2024, will last nearly three years. It includes replacing ageing equipment and upgrading auxiliary systems to extend their operational life, along with training programmes to ensure ongoing safety and reliability. AFRY’s role covers contract review, risk analysis, technical coordination, quality assessment, and supervision of factory and on-site testing. The firm aims to ensure that the project meets the highest technical and safety standards.

In 2024, hydropower accounted for over 50% of Uruguay’s total electricity production which climbed to a record 14.4TWh. Work also began on the modernisation of the Rincón de Baygorria hydroelectric plant during 2024, with plans to increase installed capacity to 120MW. The project is managed by Andritz in consortium with SACEEM. 

Venezuela’s hydropower sector has been struggling with declining capacity due to economic challenges and structural neglect of key infrastructure, such as the 10,200MW Guri Dam and the Caroní River cascade. So recent efforts have been focused on restoring existing facilities, such as the reactivation of the General José Antonio Páez hydroelectric complex in Barinas, adding 120MW to the grid. In December 2024, the Latin American Development Bank also authorised a US$380 million loan to help improve the efficiency and extend the operational life of the country’s Simón Bolívar plant. 

References

2025 World Hydropower Outlook – Opportunities to advance net zero. International Hydropower Association.

Designing a Digital Transformation Strategy for Hydropower Generation in Colombia Edgar Guevara Pabón, Bladhimir Cortés González Luis Daniel Benavides Navarro, Iván Camilo Durán Tovar, Andagustin Marulanda Guerra. Volume 13, 2025.

Formalised by treaties in 1906 and 1944 between Mexico and the US entered the two nations into an agreement to regulate the upper part of the Rio Grande basin. However, after more than 100 years, things have changed. Because although the priorities of the two sharing countries and conditions in the region have changed significantly since the 1940s, interpretation of the 1944 Treaty has not sufficiently evolved to meet these challenges, according to new research by Sanchez et al in Water International.

The Rio Grande basin has since made it to the list of the most endangered basins in the world, with studies showing its natural flow has been reduced by at least 80% annually. And with more persistent droughts, erratic rainfall and increased heat likely to be the norm going forwards, increasing water scarcity has raised’ legal and constitutional questions’ not only over the supposed ownership of water, but over priorities for water uses and users. Indeed, conditions are described as being particularly bad for Mexico. Three times since 1994 it has had to delay water deliveries until the following five-year cycle because it had fallen into water ‘debt’ with the US.

A more suitable approach could see the Treaty evolving into a more adaptable and beneficial mechanism for sharing the waters of the Rio Grande under the current uncertain and water-scarce conditions, which are expected to prevail into the future. Committing to delivering fixed amounts of water, the authors stress, simply does not make sense in a basin that cannot provide additional water in response to expected future growth. Ultimately, the two countries must recognise that the system needs both more flexibility and greater reliability in the amount and timing of water deliveries to both countries.

This will require a major change in the way both countries manage water resources in the border region and will require time and accountability from federal and state governments in both countries. Mexico, as the treaty prescribes, shoulders the greater burden for ensuring reliable water deliveries to Texas.

“At every political level things have changed,” Sanchez et al state. “The treaty cannot bring or create more water; climate change is reducing water availability on both sides of the border; existing practices and uses cannot continue without significant changes in the extant lax governance systems; and with the model of intensive and extensive agriculture, little will be accomplished without cooperation”.

According to the authors, both countries need to acknowledge that in its current form the Treaty is inadequate and needs to evolve to meet the changing needs of the Lower Rio Grande basin. There needs to be mutual commitment to developing an adaptive framework that flexibly accounts for unpredictable climatic changes, as well as growing populations and shifting economic demands. In addition, the involvement of stakeholders representing diverse interests – including from agriculture, industry, non-governmental organizations, municipal and state governments, and academia – is critical for achieving more effective and balanced negotiations over transboundary waters.

Reference

Rosario Sanchez, Stephen P. Mumme & Gabriel Eckstein (2025), The extraordinary drought provision and the future of the Rio Grande water deliveries under the 1944 US–Mexico water treaty: an exploratory policy analysis. Water International, 50:2, 171-188,